Intructional Media and Technology for Learning Chapter 3

THE ASSURE MODEL

The ASSURE model a procedural guide for planning and conducting instruction that incorporates media and technology-assumes that training or instruction is required. The ASSURE model focuses on planning surrounding the actual classroom use of media and technology. The ASSURE model, on the other hand, is meant for the individual instructor to use when planning classroom use of media and technology.

To illustrate how to use the six steps of the ASSURE model,  we will provide an example of a “Blue-print”  for each step after it is described.  These steps taken together constitute a Blueprint”-or lesson plan-that describes the instructional planning used by a middle school math teacher who wanted to re-  design a unit on statistics.

1. ANALYZE LEARNERS

The first step in the ASSURE model, therefore, is analysis of your audience. It is not feasible to analyze every trait of your learners. Several factors, however, are critical for makings good methods and media decisions:

·         General Characteristics

Even a superficial analysis of learner characteristics canny provides helpful leads in selecting instructional methods c and media.  For example, students with substandard reading skills may be reached more effectively with non-print media. If you are dealing with a particular ethnic or cultural subgroup, you might want to give high priority to considerations of ethnic and cultural identity and values in selecting particular materials. If learner apathy toward the subject matter is a problem, consider using a highly stimulating instructional approach, such as a dramatic videotape, a simulation game, or a technology-based activity.

·         Specific entry competencies

The assumption that learners have the prerequisite knowledge or skill to begin the lesson can seldom is accepted casually in school settings. Teachers of mixed-routinely anticipate that some students will need remedial help before they are ready articular unit of instruction.  Furthermore, researchers studying the impact of different psychological traits on coming have reached the unexpected conclusion that students’ prior knowledge of a particular subject influences how and what they can learn more than does any a psychological trait (Dick, Carey, & Cary, 2001).  For example, students approaching a subject new to them learn best from structured presentations even if they have a learning style that would otherwise indicate more open-ended, unstructured methods.

·         Learning Styles

Learning style refers to a cluster of psychological traits that determine how an individual perceives, interacts with, and responds emotionally to learning environments. It is clear that certain traits dramatically affect our ability to learn effectively from different methods and media However, it is not so clear which traits are most important. Gardner was dissatisfied with the concept of IQ and its unitary view of intelligence, noting that “not all people have the same abilities; not all of us learn in the same way (Gardner, 1993, p.  21).  He identified seven aspects of intelligence; subsequently revised to nine:

(i)  verbal/  linguistic(language),

(2)  logical/mathematical(scientific/ quantitative),

(3)  visual/spatial,

(4)  musical/rhythmic, 

(5)  bodily/kinesthetic (dancing/athletics),

(6)  interpersonal(understanding other people),

(7) (understanding oneself),

(8)  naturalist,  and

(9)  existentialist. 

Gardner’s theory implies that teachers, curriculum planners, and media specialists should work together to design curricula in which students have the chance to develop these different aspects of intelligence.  It also implies that students vary widely in terms of their strengths and weaknesses in each of these areas. Learning style variables discussed in the literature can be categorized as perceptual preferences ad strengths, information processing habits, motivational factors, and physiological factors Strengths.

1. Perceptual Preferences and Strengths

Learners vary as to which sensory gateways they prefer using and which they are especially adept at using.  The main gateways include auditory, visual, tactile, and kinesthetic Proponents of the importance of this variable claim that most students do not have a preference or strength for auditory reception, casting doubt on the widespread use of lecture method. They find that slower learners tend prefer tactile or kinesthetic experiences; sitting and listening are difficult for them. Dependence on the tactile and kinesthetic modalities decreases with maturity

2. Information Processing Habits.

This cites gory includes a range of variables related to how individuals tend to approach the cognitive processing of information. Gregore’s model of “mind styles,” elaborated by Burt-lucre (1986), group’s leaders according to concrete versus abstract and random versus sequential styles.  It yields four categories concrete sequential, concrete random, abstract sequential, and abstract random. Concrete sequential learners prefer hands-on experiences presented in a logical order.

They learn best with workbooks, programmed instruction, demonstrations, and structured laboratory exercises.  Concrete random learners lean toward a trial-and-error approach, quickly reaching conclusions from exploratory experiences. They prefer methods such as games, simulations, independent study projects, and discovery learning, Abstract sequential learners decode verbal and symbolic messages adeptly, especially when t presented in logical sequence. Reading and listening to presentations are preferred methods. Abstract random a learners are distinguished by their capacity to draw meaning form human-mediated presentations, they respond to the tone and style of the speaker as well as the message.  They do well with group discussion, lectures with question-and-answer periods, videotapes, and television.

3. Motivational Factors.

Motivation is an internal state that leads people toll chooses to work toward or against certain goals and experiences. It defines what people will do rather than what they can do (Keller, 1987) Motivation influences learning by determining which instructional goals students attend to and which they choose to ignore. It also determines the effort they will expend to reach certain goals. Motivators can be categorized as either intrinsic or nu transit. Intrinsic motivators are generated by aspects of turn the experience or task itself,  such as challenge or curiosity. A student who has a “short attention span” may spend hours playing computer games, but have trouble spending 10 minutes reading a textbook. Extrinsic motivators are generated by factors not directly related to the experience or task, such as grades or recognition.

A helpful approach to describing student motivation is Keller’s(1987)  ARCS model.  Keller describes four essential aspects of motivation: . 

1. Attention refers to whether students perceive the instruction as interesting and worthy of their consideration
2. Relevance refers to whether students perceive the instruction as meeting some personal need or goal.
3. Confidence refers to whether students expect to succeed based on their own efforts. .
4. Satisfactions refers to the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards students receive from the instruction.
5. Physiological Factors.

Factors related to gender the differences, health, and environmental conditions are among the most obvious influences on the effectiveness rate of learning. Dunn and Durin (1992) have developed standard sized instruments to measure the learning styles and environmental preferences of learners that cover these and among the quest other physiological factors. They are a known and most widely used instruments in school applications. Teachers who have prescribed individual learning programs based on analysis of these factors feel that they have practical value in improving academic achievement,  attitude,  and discipline. 

2. STATE OBJECTIVES

An objective is a statement not of what the instructor plans to put into the lesson but of what earners ought to get out of the lesson. An objective is a statement of what will be achieved, not bow it will be achieved. Your statement of objectives should be as specific as possible. For example, “My students will improve their mathematical skills” is far too general to qualify as a specific lesson objective. Why should you state instructional objectives? First, you must know your objectives in order to make appropriate selection of methods and media.  Your objectives will, in a sense, guide your sequence of learning activities and your choice of media.

a. The ABCDs of Well-Stated Objectives

A well-stated objective starts by naming the Audience for whom the objective is intended. Specifies the Behavior or capability to be demonstrated the Conditions under which the behavior or capability will be observed. Finally, it specifics the Degree to which the new skill must be mastered the standard by which the capability can be judged.

·         Audience

·         Behavior

·         Conditions

·         Degree

2.      Classification of Objectives

Classifying objectives is much more than an academic exercise for educational psychologists. It has practical value because the selection of instructional methods and a media, as well as evaluation methods, depends on the types of objectives being pursued. An objective may be classified according to the primary type of learning outcome at which it is aimed. Three categories (or domain), of learning are widely accepted: cognitive skills, Affective skills, and motor skills. To these we add a fourth, interpersonal skills, because of the importance of such skills in teamwork.

·         ognitive domain learning involves an array of intellectual capabilities that may be classified either as verbal/visual information or as intellectual skills. Verbal/visual skills require learners to provide a specific response to relatively specific stimuli.

·         The Affective domain involves feelings and values. Affective objectives range from, for example, stimulating interest in a school subject, to encouraging healthy social attitudes, to adopting a set of ethical standards.

·         In the motor skill domain, learning involves athletic, manual, and other such physical skills. Motor skill objectives include capabilities ranging from a simple mechanical fern operations to those entailing sophisticated neuromusculars coordination and strategy, as in competitive sports.

·         Learning in the interpersonal domain involves inter discus action among people. Interpersonal skills are people- centered skills that require the ability to relate effectively with others.  Examples include teamwork, counseling techniques, administrative skills, salesmanship, discussion, inform and customer relations.

3.      Objectives and Individual Differences

Objectives are not intended to limit what students learn but rather to provide a minimum level of expected achievement. Serendipitous or incidental learning should help be expected to occur (and should be encouraged)  as student progress toward an objective. Each learner has different characteristics (as discussed earlier in this chapter) Because of such individual differences, incidental learning takes different forms with different students.

3. SELECT METHODS, MEDIA, AND MATERIALS

A systematic plan for using media and technology certainly demands that the methods, media, and materials be selected systematically in the first place. The selection process has three steps: (1) deciding on the appropriate method for the given learning tasks, (2) choosing a media format that is suitable for carrying out the method, and (3) selecting, modifying, or designing specific materials within that media format.

a. Choosing a Method

First, it would be overly simplistic to believe that there is one method that is superior to all others or that serves all learning needs equally well. As mentioned in Chapter 1, any given lesson will probably incorporate two or more methods to serve different purposes at different usually points in the progression of the lesson.  For example,  once might conduct a simulation activity to gain attend situation and arouse interest at the beginning of this lesson,  instruct then use a demonstration to present new information,  and then arrange computer-based drill-and-practice activities to provide practice in the new skill.

b. Choosing a Media Format

A media format is the physical form in which a message he is incorporated and displayed. Media formats include,  for example,  flip charts(still images and text),  slide s(projected still images),  audio(voice and music),  video(moving images on a TV screen),  and computer multimedia (graphics, text, and moving images on a monitor). Each has different strengths and limitations in terms of the types of messages that can be recorded and displayed. Choosing a media format can be a complex task-considering the vast array of media and technology available, the variety of learners, and the many objectives to be pursued.

c. Obtaining Specific Materials

Obtaining appropriate materials will generally involve one of three alternatives: (1) selecting available materials, (2) modifying existing materials, or (3) designing new materials.  Obviously, if materials are already available that will allow your students to meet your objectives by all means use them, thus saving work, time, and money.

    d. Selecting Available Materials

• Involving the Media Technology Specialist

The media/technology specialist can be an in resource for you. You may need new materials to update the content of a unit.  The media/technology specialist can tell you about materials housed in a local re source center or school library media center.

• Surveying the Sources.

You might survey some of the published media reference guides or the Internet to get a general idea of what is available. Unfortunately, no single comprehensive guide exists for all audiovisual materials available in all media formats in all unsubjects, you may have to consult several sources.

There are three types of guides that can help you se FIGUR let media- comprehensive guides, selective guides, AV and evaluative guides.

1. Comprehensive guides, such as on AV Online”, and Bowker’s Complete. Video Guide, help you identify the scope of possibilities.
2. Selective guides, such as Only the Best Computer Program, Best Videos for Children and Young Adults, and The Elementary School library Collection, are a compilation of the best instructional materials. An advantages of these selective guides is that time has allowed the*best” to surface from a comparison of similar products on the market. A disadvantage is that during the times D required for this process to. Take place, some interns may have become outdated and newer items of good quality may not have been included.
3. Evaluative guides, such as Booklist, School Library Journal Choice, and Video Rating Guide, are current and will keep you up to date about new materials. Although they are evaluative, they usually include just one person’s opinion, that person’s needs and audience may be different from yours.

• Selection Criteria.

Over the years, scholars have debated’ about what criteria should be applied in selecting materials. Studies have been conducted to quantify and validate various criteria.  The net result is an understanding that different criteria are suitable for different situations.  For example, a remedial reading teacher might decide to use a particular computer program primarily because its vocabulary level is just right, regardless of any other qualities.

• The Instructor’s Personal File.

Every in structure should develop a file of media references and appraisals for personal use. An excellent way for you focus Checklists by using the*Classroom Link Portfolio” CD-ROM.  Fact type of Appraisal Checklist in this text has a computer template on the software into which you begin is to develop your own personal file of Appraisal and can enter your own information for future reference.

5. Modifying Existing Materials

One frequently modified:  media format is, a set of slides with an audiotape.  If the visuals are appropriate but the language is not, it is possible to change the language. It is also possible to change the emphasis of the demarcation. For example, an original audiotape might a wail if use the slides to show various types of fish found in oceans. If you try out modified materials while they are still, you can then make further in more or less rough form, you can then make further modifications in response to student reaction until your materials meet your exact needs.

6. Designing new materials

As is the case with selecting from available materials, you must consider certain basic elements when designing new material:

1. What do you want your student to learn?
2. Is sufficient money available in your budget to meet the cost of supplies (videotapes, audiotapes, etc.) you will need to prepare the materials?
3. Technical Expertise. Do you have the necessary expertise to design and produce the kind of materials you wish to use?
4. Do you have the necessary equipment to produce or use the materials you intend to design? 
5. If your design calls for use of special facilities for preparation or use of your materials, are such facilities available?
6. Can you afford to spend whatever time necessary to design and produce the kind of materials you have in mind

4. UTILIZE MEDIA AND MATERIALS

The next step in the ASSURE model is the use of media anthem materials by the students and teacher. The recommended utilization procedures are based on extensive research.  The general pinnacles have remained remarkably constant. The main differences has to do with who is using the materials The increased availability of media and the philosophical shift from teacher-centered to student-centered learning increases the likelihood that students will be using the materials themselves as individuals or in small groups rather visit than watching as the teacher presents them to a whole class.

The following “5 Ps” apply to either teacher-based or student-centered instruction.

1. Preview the Materials

You should never use instructional materials with or without is them first. During the selection Process determine that the materials are appropriate material or audience and objectives. Published reread views, distributor’s blurbs, and colleagues’ appraise tribute information about the material;  however u should inert on previewing the materials yourself you show thorough understanding of the contents we use the media and materials to their full self teacher understanding of the contents we needed potential.

2. Prepare the Materials

Next, you need to prepare the media and materials to support the instructional activities you plan to use. This is true whether you are presenting the materials or your students are using them. The first step is to gather all the pre-materials and equipment that you and the students will need. Determine in what sequence you will use the materials and media. What villi you do with them as the presenter?  What will the students do as learners?  Some teachers keep a list of the materials and equipment will needed for each lesson and an outline of the presentation sequence of the activities.

3. Prepare the Environment

Some media require a darkened room, a convenient power & source, and access to light switches. You should check that the equipment is in working order whether it is to be used by you or by your students. Arrange the facilities so that all the students can see and hear properly.

4. Prepare the Learners

A proper warm up, from an instructional point of view,  may be similar to one of the following:

• An introduction giving a broad overview of the content of the lesson
• A rationale telling how it relates to the topic being studied.
• A motivating statement that creates a need to know by telling learners how they will profit from paying attention.
• Cues directing attention to specific aspects of the lesson.

5. Provide the Learning Experiences

If the experience is student centered, you must play the role of guide or facilitator, helping students to explore the topic on the Internet, discuss the content, and prepare materials for a portfolio, or present information to their structure classmates. Guidelines in some of the following chapters will assist students in the production of mediated materials. (See ASSURE Blueprint for Utilize Media and Materials, above.)

5. REQUIRE LEARNER PARTICIPATION

·         Educators have long realized that active participation in the learning process enhances learning In the early 1900s John Dewey urged reorganization of the curriculum and instruction to make student participation central.  Later, In the 1950s and 1960s, experiments employing behaviorist approaches demonstrated that instruction providing for constant reinforcement of desired behaviors is more effective than instruction in which responses are not reinforced.

All perspectives also emphasize die importance of feedback (productive critical evaluative response): 

·         Behaviorists, because knowledge of correct response

·         Cognitivists, because information about results.

·         Constructivists, because meaning (and knowledge) serves as a reinforced of appropriate behaviors helps to enrich learners’ mental schemata is enhanced with each personal experience provides both corrective information and emotional.

·         Social psychologists, because interpersonal feedback support Feedback.

6. EVALUATE AND REVISE

The final component of the ASSURE model for effective learning is evaluation and revision.  Often the most frequently misused aspect of lesson design, evaluation and revision is an essential component to the development of quality instruction. There are many purposes for evaluation.  Often the only form seen in education is the paper-and-pencil test, claimed to be used for assessment of student achievement.

Although ultimate evaluation must await completion of the instructional unit, evaluation is ongoing; evaluations are made before, during, and after instruction, for example, before instruction, you would measure learner characteristics to ensure that there is a fit between existing student skills and the methods and materials you intend to use.

In addition, materials should be appraised prior to use. During instruction, evaluation may take the form of student practice with feedback, or it may consist of a short quiz or self-evaluation. Evaluation during instruction usually has a diagnostic purpose; that is, it is designed to detect and correct learning/teaching problems and difficulties with the instruction that may interfere with student achievement.  Evaluation is not die end of instruction. It is the starting point of the next and continuing cycle in our emetic ASSUURE model for effective use of instructional media.

1. Assessment of Learner Achievement

The method of assessing achievement depends on the nature of the objective, some objectives call for relatively simple cognitive skills for example, recalling Ohm’s law, what distinguishing adjectives from adverbs, describing a company’s absence policy, or summarizing the principles of the Declaration of Independence. Objectives such as these lend their selves to conventional written tests or oral examinations.

In schools, rising interest in authentic assessment is driven by commitment to competency-based instruction and to constructivist pedagogy. Authentic assessment is usually performance based and, requires students to demonstrate what they have learned in a natural context, as opposed to just taking standardized paper and-pencil tests.

In educational settings, assessment is often used to measure student learning, to inform students and their parents/guardians of student progress, arid to give grades sect an authentic assessment is assessment of skills required in the real world.” The authentic assessment should use processes ( psychomotors and/or mental) appropriate to the content and skills being learned. The assessment task should represent the way the discipline is used in the real world.

Authentic assessment tasks usually have the following characteristics:

5. Have more than one correct approach
6. Are thought provoking, not simply requiring recall! Of memorized facts.
7. Require decision making, rather than just rote.
8. Develop thinking in a variety of ways.
9. Lead to other problems to be solved.
10. Raise other questions

Types of authentic assessments include the following:

11. Student projects such as writing assignments, science projects, and posters.
12. Performances such as giving speeches, or demonstrating gymnastics or self-defense-
13. Oral questioning by both teachers and other students.
14. Discussions of controversial topics and current events.
15. Portfolios, inducing examples of student work with summaries and reflections.

2. Evaluation of Methods and Media

Particularly after first use, instructional materials need to be evaluated to determine whether future use, with or without modification, is warranted. The results of your evaluation should be entered on an Appraisal Checklist. You may solicit learner input on the effectiveness of specific media, such as a CD or videotape. You may be the sign your own form or use our similar to the “Learner Reaction Form”.

3. Revision

The final step of the instructional cycle is to sit back and look at the results of your evaluation data gathering. Make notes immediately following completion of the lesson, and refer to them before you implement the lesson again. If your evaluation data indicate shortcomings in any of these areas, now is the time to go back to the faulty part of the plan and revise it. The model works, but only if you constantly use it to upgrade the quality of your instruction.