MEDIA, TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING
- Learning
- Media
- The roles of media in Learning
- Methods
- Technology
Introduction
Throughout history, media and technology have influenced education.
Most recently, for example, the computer and the internet have invaded
instructional settings. Such tools offer powerful possibilities for
improving learning. The teacher, however, makes the difference in the
integration of media and technology into this process.
The roles of instructor and learner are clearly changing because of
the influence of media and technology in the classroom. No longer are
teachers and textbooks the sources of all knowledge. The teacher becomes
the director of the knowledge-access process. Along the continuum of
instructional strategies, sometimes the teacher will elect to provide
direct instructional experiences for students. At other times, with a
few keystrokes students can explore the world, gaining access to
libraries, other teachers and students, and a host of resources to
obtain the knowledge they seek.
It is essential that, as the guide for learning, the teacher examine
media and technology in the context of learning and its potential impact
on the outcome for students. This chapter concerns the nature of
learning, the way the role and responsibility of the teacher change with
the approach to instruction used, and the importance of media and
technology within that process.
In this chapter we first considers learning, looking at several
psychological perspectives and a philosophical perspective next we
introduce the various type of media, which we will explore in later
chapters. The concrete-abstract continuum is explained. We describe
various roles of media in learning and present different methods, such
as presentations, demonstrations, and discussion. The chapter concludes
with a discussion of technology as it rates to learning.
- LEARNING
Learning is the development of new knowledge, skills, or attitude as
an individual interacts with information and the environment. The
learning environment includes the physical facilities, the psychological
atmosphere, instructional methods, media, and technology. Thus, the
learning process involves the selection, arrangement, and delivery of
information in an appropriate environment and the way learners interact
with that information.
- Psychological Perspectives on Learning
Over the past half century there have been several dominant theories
of learning each has implications for instruction in general and for the
use of technology specifically. We will briefly survey each of the
major perspectives on learning and discuss their implications. Learning
theories and their impact on teaching decisions are discussed in greater
detail by Driscoll (1994).
In the mid-1950s, the focus of learning research started to shift
from stimulus design (communication) to learner response to stimuli. At
the forefront of this movement was B. F. Skinner, a psychologist at
Harvard University. Skinner was a proponent of behaviorism but with an
important difference: he was interested in voluntary behavior, as
illustrated by Pavlov’s famous salivating dog. He demonstrated that the
behavior of an organism could be shaped by reinforcing, or rewarding,
the desired responses to the environment. Skinner based his learning
theory, known as reinforcement theory, on a series of experiments with
pigeons, and he reasoned that the same producers could be used with
humans. The result was the emergence of programmed instruction, a
technique of leading a learner through a series of instructional steps
to a desired level of performance. Unlike earlier learning research,
Skinner’s work led directly to improved instructional design.
Cognitivists, on the other hand, are making a primary contribution to
learning theory and instructional design by creating models of how
learners receive, process, and manipulate information. Cognitivist leads
to a different way of looking at familiar learning patterns. For
example, behaviorists simply state that practice strengthens the
response to a stimulus. Cognitivists create a mental model of short-term
and long-term memory. New information a stored in short-term memory,
where it is “rehearsed” until ready to be stored in long-term memory. If
the information is not rehearsed, it fades from short-term memory.
Learners then combine the information and skills in long-term memory
to develop cognitive strategies, or skills for dealing with complex
tasks. Cognitivists have a broader perception of independent learning
than that held by behaviorists. A close look at the work of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget
illustrates how a cognitive psychologist views the mental processes
individuals use in responding to their environment. The three key
concepts of mental development in Piaget’s work are schemata,
assimilation, and accommodation (Piaget, 1977).
- Schemata
Schemata (singular, schema) are the mental structures by which
individuals organize their perceived environment. Schemata are adapted
or changed during mental development and learning. They are used to
identify, process, and store incoming information and can be thought of
as categories individuals use to classify specific information and
experiences.
Very young children learn to distinguish between mother and father.
They soon separate dogs from cats and later become aware of different
varieties of dogs: These differentiations based on experience lead to
the development of schemata, or the ability to classify objects by their
significant characteristics.
- Assimilation
Assimilation is the cognitive process by which a learner integrates
new information and experiences into existing schemata. Piaget borrowed
the term from biology, where it refers to the process by which an
organism eats food, digests it, and then assimilates or changes it into a
usable form.
During learning, assimilation results from experiences. With new
experiences, the schema expands in size but does not change its basic
structure. Using the process of assimilation, the individual attempts to
place new concepts into existing schemata.
- Accommodation
The process of modifying existing or creating new ones is called
accommodation. Because schemata change with experience, adult learners
have a broader and more elaborate range of schemata than do children.
When dealing with a new concept or experience, the learner attempts to
assimilate it into existing schemata. There are two possible responses:
- The learner can create a new schema into which the new stimulus is placed, or
- The existing schema can be modified so that the new stimulus will fit. Both of these process are form of accommodation.
- Constructivist Perspective
Constructivism is a movement that extends beyond the beliefs of the
cognitivist. It considers as the essence of learning. The shift is from
passive transfer of information to active problem solving.
Constructivists emphasize that learners create their own interpretations
of the world of information. The constructivist believes that learning
occurs most effectively when students are engaged in authentic tasks
that relate to meaningful contexts. The ultimate measure of learning is
therefore based on the ability of the student to use knowledge to
facilitate thinking in real life.
- Social-Psychological Perspective
Social psychology is another well-established tradition in the study
of instruction and learning. Social psychologists look at the effects of
the social organization of the classroom on learning. In recent years,
researchers such as Robert Slavin have taken the position that
cooperative learning is both more effective and more socially beneficial
than competitive and individualistic learning (Slavin, 1990).
Slavin developed a set of cooperative learning techniques that embodies
the principles of small-group collaboration, learner-controlled
instruction, and rewards based on group achievement.
Approaches to Instruction
Instruction is the arrangement of information and environment to
facilitate learning. By environment we mean not only where instruction
takes place but also the methods, media, and technology needed to convey
information and guide the learner’s study. Instructions and
instructional designers need to develop an eclectic attitude toward
competing schools of learning psychology.
Finding a Middle Ground
Inspired by each of the psychological perspectives, designers have
developed powerful frameworks for instruction. Indeed, successful
instructional practices have features that are supported by virtually
all the various perspectives:
- Active participations
- Practice
- Individual differences
- Feedback
- Realistic contexts
- Social interaction
The learning frameworks that we will examine in detail all attempt to incorporate a number of these pedagogical features.
- Philosophical Perspective on Learning
If teachers perceive learners as machines, they will treat them as
such, with or without the use of instructional media and technology. If
teachers perceive their students as human beings with rights,
privileges, and motivations of their own, with or without the aid of
media and technology, they will view students as people engaged in
learning. In other words, it is the way that media and technology are
used, not the media and technology themselves, that tend to mechanize
people.
Students with a high level of anxiety are prone to make mistakes and
to learn less efficiently when under pressure. Many times, stressful
learning situations for high- anxiety students make it difficult for
them to succeed. Given the same sequence of instruction mediated through
technology that will continue only at the command of the students, it
may be possible to reduce the pressure.
- MEDIA
A medium (plural, media) is a channel of communication. Derived from
the Latin word meaning “between”, the term refers to anything that
carries information between a source and a receiver. The purpose of
media is to facilitate communication.
Since the turn of the century, teachers have used various types of
audio and visual aids to help them teach. Recently, teachers have
expanded their repertoire of materials and procedures to include the new
technologies for learning. The newer techniques include the use of
computers, compact discs, digital videodiscs (DVDs), satellite
communication, and the internet.
The Concrete-Abstract Continuum
In general, as you move up Dale’s Cone of Experience toward the more
abstract media, more information can be compressed into a shorter period
of time. It takes more time for students to engage in a direct
purposeful experience, a contrived experience, or a dramatized
experience than it does to present the same information in a videotape, a
recording, a series of visual symbols, or a series of verbal symbols.
- THE ROLES OF MEDIA IN LEARNING
Media can serve many roles in learning. The instruction may be
dependent on the presence of a teacher (instructor directed). Even in
this situation, media may be heavily used by the teacher. On the other
hand, the instruction may not require a teacher. Such student-directed
instruction is often called “self-instruction” even though it is in fact
guided by whoever designed the media.
- Instructor-Directed Instruction
The most common use of media in an instructional situation is for
supplemental support of the “live” instructor in the classroom.
Certainly, properly designed instructional media can enhance and promote
learning and support teacher-based instruction. But their effectiveness
depends on the instructor.
Research has long indicated the importance of the instructor’s role
in effective use of instructional media. For example, early studies
showed that when teachers introduced films, relating them to learning
objectives, the amount of information students gained from films
increased (Wittich & Fowlkes, 1946).
Advance organizers can be effective instruments for ensuring that
media play their proper role as supplemental supporters of instruction.
Many commercially available materials today have built-in advance
organizers, which may be used as is or adapted by the instructor.
Specific examples from this text include the photo essays at the
beginning of each chapter, the chapter outlines, lexicons, and the
chapter organization chart.
- Instructor-Independent Instruction
The use of self-instructional materials allows teachers to spend more
of their time diagnosing and correcting students problems, consulting
with individual students, and teaching one on one and in small groups.
Indeed, under certain circumstances, the entire instructional task can
be left to the media. Experimental programs have demonstrated, for
example, that an entire course in high svhool physics can be
successfully taught through the use of videotapes and workbooks without
direct classroom intervention by the teacher. Successful computer-based
courses in calculus have been developed for use by able students whose
high schools have no such course.
- Media Portfolios
A portfolio is a collection of student work that illustrates growth
over a period of time. Portfolios often include such artifacts as
student-produced illustrated books, videos, and audiovisual
presentations. Portfolios allow students to do the following:
- Gather, organize, and share information
- Analyze relationships
- Test hypotheses
- Communicate the result effectively
- Record a variety of performances
- Reflect on their learning and activities
- Emphasize their goals, outcomes, and priorities
- Demonstrate their creativity and personality
Portfolios could contain the following artifacts:
- Written documents such as poems, stories, or research papers
- Media presentations, such as slide sets or photo essays
- Audio recordings of debates, panel discussions, or oral presentations
- Video recordings of students’ athletic, musical, or dancing skills
- Computer multimedia projects incorporating print, data, graphics, and moving images
Portfolio assessment is consistent with the constructivist
philosophy, which emphasizes that what is important is the knowledge
that students themselves construct. The idea of portfolio assessment,
then, is to measure students’ achievement by their ability to create
tangible products exemplifying their accomplishments in term of
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Portfolios provide a broad picture of what students know and can do.
They can portray both the process and products of student works, as well
as demonstrate student growth. Students reflection should be an
important component of portfolios. Self-reflection actively involves
students in assessing their own learning and actively promotes
reflection on their work and abilities.
- Electronic Portfolios
Electronic portfolios are a means of organizing, designing, and
viewing traditional styles of portfolios. They are was assessing student
learning using technology. Physical and social development can be
measured as well (Campbell, 1996). Electronic
portfolios have advantages over traditional portfolios in the way they
are created and navigated. Creating electronic portfolios can expand the
size of the audience to include other teachers, principals, parents,
and students.
To create electronic portfolios with full capabilities hardware is
needed: a computer with audio and video capabilities, video camera,
digital camera, color scanner, software program and internet
accessibility.
- Distance Education
Distance education is a rapidly developing approach to instruction
worldwide. The approach has been widely used by business, industrial,
and medical organizations. The distinguishing characteristics of
distance education is the separation of the instructional team and
student’s during the learning process. As a consequence, the course
content must be delivered by instructional media. In addition, radio,
broadcast television, and teleconferences are utilized for “live”
distance education.
- Education for Exceptional Students
Media play an important role in the education of students with
exceptionalities. Adapted and specially designed media can contribute
enormously to effective instruction of all students an can help them
achieve at their highest potential regardless of their innate abilities.
Adjusting instruction for all exceptional groups requires heavy
reliance on media and materials and the appropriate selection of these
materials to fit specific purposes.
- METHODS
Instructional methods have been described as “presentation form” such
as lecturers and discussions. Method are the procedures of instruction
selected to help learners achieve the objectives or to internalize the
content or message. Media then, as already defined, are carriers of
information between a source and a receiver.
- Ten Method Categories
In the presentation method, a source tells, dramatizes or otherwise
disseminators in formation to learners. It is a one way communication
controlled by the source, with no immediate response from or interaction
with learners. The source may be a textbook, an audiotape, a videotape,
a film, an instructor, and so forth. Reading a book, listening to an
audiotape, viewing a videotape, and attending a lecture are examples of
the presentation method.
Demonstrations may be recorded and played back by means of media such
as video. If two-way interaction or learner practice with feedback is
desired, a live instructor or a tutor is needed.
Discussion involves the exchange of ideas and opinions among students
or among students and teacher. It can be used at any stage of the
instruction/learning process, and in small or large groups. It is a
useful way of assessing the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of a group
of students before finalizing instructional objectives, particularly if
it is a group the instructor has never taught before.
In drill-and-practice learners are led through a series of practice
exercise designed to increase fluency in a new skill or to refresh an
existing one and received some instruction on the concept, principle, or
procedure that is to be practiced. To be effective, the
drill-and-practice exercises should include feedback to reinforce
correct responses and to remediate errors learners might make along the
way.
Drill-and-practice is used commonly for such tasks as studying math
facts, learning a foreign language, and buildings a vocabulary. Certain
media formats and delivery systems lend themselves particularly well to
student drill-and-practice exercises. Also, audiocassettes can be used
effectively for drill-and-practice in spelling, arithmetic, and language
instruction.
A tutor-in the form of a person, computer software, or special
printed materials-presents the content, poses a question or problem,
requests a learner’s response, analyzes her response, supplies
appropriate feedback, and provides practice until the learner
demonstrates a predetermined level of competency. Tutoring is most often
done one on one and is frequently used to teach basic skills, such as
reading and arithmetic.
Tutorial arrangements include instructor-to-learner,
learner-to-learner, computer-to-learner, and print-to-learner. The
computer is especially well suited to play the role of tutor because of
its ability to deliver speedily a complex menu of responses to different
learner inputs.
Many educators have criticized the competitive atmosphere that
dominates many classrooms in public schools and higher education. They
believe that pitting student against student in the attainment of grades
is contrary to the social requirements of cooperation in life and in
most on-the-job situations. Teacher and students often find themselves
in a situation where the main emphasis is on test taking and grading.
There are other ways to assess student learning, such as the portfolios
described earlier in this chapter. Competition in the classroom also
interferes with students learning from each other.
Students can learn cooperatively not only by discussing text and
viewing media but also by producing media. For example, the design and
production of a video or a slide set as a curriculum project presents an
opportunity for cooperative learning. The teacher should be a working
partner with the students in such learning situations.
Gaming provides a playful environment in which learners follow
prescribed rules as they strive to attain a challenging goal. It is a
highly motivating technique, especially for tedious and repetitive
content. The game may involve one learner or a group of learners. Games
often require learners to use problem-solving skills or to demonstrate
mastery of specific content demanding a high degree of accuracy and
efficiency.
One common type of instructional game is related to learning about
business. Participant form management teams to make decisions regarding a
mythical corporation, the team with the highest corporate profits is
the winner.
Simulation involves confronting a scaled-down version of a real-life
situation. It allows realistic practice without the expense or risks
otherwise involved. The simulation may involve participant dialog,
manipulation of materials and equipment, or interaction with a computer.
Interpersonal skills and laboratory experiments in the physical
sciences are popular subjects for simulations. In some simulations
learners manipulate mathematical models to determine the effect of
changing certain variables, such as controlling a nuclear power plant.
Role playing is another common example of the simulation method.
The discovery method uses an inductive, or inquiry, approach to
learning; it present problems to be solved through trial and error. The
aims of the discovery method Is to foster a deeper understanding of the
content through involvement with it. The rules or procedures that
learners discover may be derived from previous experience, based on
information in reference books, or stored in a computer database.
Discovery learning can assume the form of helping students to seek the
information they wish to know about a topic of specific interest to
them.
Problem solving involves placing students in the active role of being
confronted with a novel problem situated in the real world. Students
start with limited knowledge, but through peer collaboration and
consultation they develop, explain, and defend a solution or position on
the problem. It uses reality-based, problem-centered materials that are
often presented by media. As a part of solving the problem, students go
to the library media center and/or accMy Chanel YouTubeess computer databases through
the internet.
- TECHNOLOGY
The word technology has always had a variety of connotations, ranging
from mere hardware to a way of solving problems. The latter is
exemplified in the often-quoted definition given by economist John
Kenneth Galbraith: ”The systematic application of scientific or other
organized knowledge to practical tasks”(Galbraith, 1967, p. 12).
The notion of technology being a process is high lighted in the
definition of instructional technology given by the leading professional
association in that field: “the theory and practice of design,
development, utilization, management and evaluation of processes and
resources for learning” (Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 9). The developers
of programmed instruction called it a technology for learning. They
believed that what was really important was the process of analyzing
learning tasks breaking them down into their components, and then
devising the steps necessary to help learners master those tasks.
